dubsahara: Maqam

Maqam

A maqam (pl maqamat) is the system of melodic modes used in traditional Arabic music, which is mainly melodic. The word maqam in Arabic means place, location or rank. The Arabic maqam is a melody type. Each maqam is built on a scale, and carries a tradition that defines its habitual phrases, important notes, melodic development and modulation. Both compositions and improvisations in traditional Arabic music are based on the maqam system. Maqams can be realized with either vocal or instrumental music, and do not include a rhythmic component.

Background

The designation maqam appeared for the first time in the treatises written in the fourteenth century by Al-Sheikh Al-Safadi and Abdulqadir Al-Maraghi, and has since then been used as a technical term in Arabic music. The maqam is a modal structure that characterizes the art of music of countries in North Africa, the Near East and Central Asia. In this area we can distinguish three main musical cultures which all belong to the modal family, namely the Turkish, the Greek, the Persian and the Arabic.

A strong similarity exists between these three families in which the same modal structure is known as Makam in Turkish music, Dastgah in Persian music, Mugam in Azerbaijan, Meqam in Kurdish music, Makam in Assyrian music, Shash Maqom in Uzbek music and Muqam in Uyghur music.

The maqam was preceded by seven centuries, by the Dastgah of Persia, developed by Barbod. Many Arabic maqams can trace their names to the Persian language, e.g. Nikriz, Farahfaza, Suzidil, Suznak, Rast, Sikah (from Se-Gah), Jiharkah (from Chehar-Gah) and Nairuz (from Nowruz). The reverse is also true, with Persian Goosheh names taken from Arabic, e.g. Hejaz (from Hijaz), Hoseynî (from Husseini), Oshshagh (from ‘Ushshaq) and Hodi. Similarly, many Arabic maqam names come from the Turkish Makam, such as Sultani Yekah, Buselik and Bastanikar, while the following Turkish Makam names trace their origin to Arabic: Hiçaz, Irak, Huseyni, S?nb?le and U??ak.

Tuning system

Arabic maqams are based on a musical scale of 7 notes that repeats at the octave. Some maqams have 2 or more alternative scales (e.g. Rast, Nahawand and Hijaz). Maqam scales in traditional Arabic music are microtonal, not based on a twelve-tone equal-tempered musical tuning system, as is the case in modern Western Music. Most maqam scales include a perfect fifth or a perfect fourth (or both), and all octaves are perfect. The remaining notes in a maqam scale may or may not exactly fall on semitones. For this reason maqam scales are mostly taught orally, and by extensive listening to the traditional Arabic music repertoire.

Notation

Since microtonal intervals are impractical to accurately notate, a simplified musical notation system was adopted in Arabic music at the turn of the 20th century. Starting with a chromatic scale, the Arabic scale is divided into 24 equal quarter tones, where a quarter tone equals half a semitone in a 12 tone equal-tempered scale. In this notation system all notes in a maqam scale are rounded to the nearest quarter tone.

This system of notation is not exact since it eliminates microtonal details, but is very practical because it allows maqam scales to be notated using Western standard notation. Quarter tones can be notated using the half-flat sign or the half-sharp sign . When transcribed with this notation system some maqam scales happen to include quarter tones, while others don’t.

In practice, maqams are not performed in all chromatic keys, and are more rigid to transpose than scales in Western music, primarily because of the technical limitations of Arabic instruments. For this reason, half-sharps rarely occur in maqam scales, and the most used half-flats are E , B and less frequently A .

Intonation

The 24-tone system is entirely a notational convention and does not affect the actual precise intonation of the notes performed. Practicing Arab musicians, while using the nomenclature of the 24-tone system (half-flats and half-sharps), still perform the finer microtonal details which have been passed down through oral tradition.

Maqam scales that do not include quarter tones (e.g. Nahawand, Ajam) can be performed on equal-tempered instruments such as the piano, however such instruments cannot faithfully reproduce the microtonal details of the maqam scale. Maqam scales can be faithfully performed either on fretless instruments (e.g. the oud or the violin), or on instruments that allow a sufficient degree of tunability and microtonal control (e.g. the nay or the qanun). On fretted instruments with steel strings, microtonal control can be achieved by string bending, as when playing blues.

The exact intonation of every maqam scale changes with the historical period, as well as the geographical region (as is the case with linguistic accents, for example). For this reason, and because it is impractical to precisely and accurately notate microtonal variations from a twelve-tone equal tempered scale, maqam scales are in practice learned orally.

Ajnas

Maqam scales are made up of smaller sets of consecutive notes that have a very recognizable melody and convey a distinctive mood. Such a set is called jins (pl. ajnas), meaning gender or kind. In most cases a jins is made up of 4 consecutive notes (a tetrachord), although ajnas of 3 consecutive notes (a trichord) or a 5 consecutive notes (a pentachord) also exist.

Ajnas are the building blocks of a maqam scale. A maqam scale has a lower (or first) jins and an upper (or second) jins. In most cases maqams are classified into families or branches based on their lower jins. The upper jins may start on the ending note of the lower jins or on the note following that. In some cases the upper and lower ajnas may overlap. The starting note of the upper jins is called the dominant, and is the second most important note in that scale after the tonic. Maqam scales often includes secondary ajnas that start on notes other than the tonic or the dominant. Secondary ajnas are highlighted in the course of modulation.

References on Arabic music theory often differ on the classification of ajnas. There is no consensus on a definitive list of all ajnas, their names or their sizes. However the majority of references agree on the basic 9 ajnas, which also make up the main 9 maqam families. The following is the list of the basic 9 ajnas notated with Western standard notation (all notes are rounded to the nearest quarter tone):

Ajam trichord, starting on B?

Bayati tetrachord, starting on D

Hijaz tetrachord, starting on D

Kurd tetrachord, starting on D

Nahawand tetrachord, starting on C

Nikriz pentachord, starting on C

Rast tetrachord, starting on C

Saba tetrachord, starting on D

Sikah trichord, starting on E

Maqam families

• Ajam – Ajam Jiharkah Shawq Afza

• Sikah – Bastanikar Huzam Iraq Mustaar Rahat El Arwah Sikah Sikah Baladi

• Bayati – Bayatayn Bayati Bayati Shuri Husseini Nahfat

• Nahawand – Farahfaza Nahawand Nahawand Murassah , Ushaq Masri

• Rast – Mahur Nairuz Rast Suznak Yakah

• Hijaz – Hijaz Hijaz Kar Shadd Araban Shahnaz , Suzidil Zanjaran

• Saba – Saba Saba Zamzam

• Kurd – Kurd Hijaz Kar Kurd

• Nawa Athar – Athar Kurd Nawa Athar , Nikriz

Emotional content

Generally speaking, each maqam evokes a different emotion in the listener. At a more basic level, each jins conveys a different mood or color. For this reason maqams of the same family share a common mood since they start with the same jins. There is no consensus on exactly what the mood of each maqam or jins is. Some references describe maqam moods using very vague and subjective terminology (e.g. maqams evoking ‘love’, ‘femininity’, ‘pride’ or ‘distant desert’). However there has not been any serious research using scientific methodology on a diverse sample of listeners (whether Arab or non-Arab) proving that they feel the same emotion when hearing the same maqam.

Attempting the same exercise in Western music would mean relating a mood to the major and minor modes. In that case there is a wider consensus that the minor scale is sadder and the major scale is happier.

Modulation

Modulation is a technique used during the melodic development of a maqam. In simple terms it means changing from one maqam to another (compatible or closely related) maqam. This involves using a new musical scale. A long musical piece can modulate over many maqams but usually ends with the starting maqam (in rare cases the purpose of the modulation is to actually end with a new maqam). A more subtle form of modulation within the same maqam is to shift the emphasis from one jins to another so as to imply a new maqam.

Modulation adds a lot of interest to the music, and is present in almost every maqam-based melody. Modulations that are pleasing to the ear are created by adhering to compatible combinations of ajnas and maqams long established in traditional Arabic music. Although such combinations are often documented in musical references, most experienced musicians learn them by extensive listening.

Maqam System

Though it would be incorrect to call it a modal, for the Arabic system is more complex than that of the Greek modes, the basis of Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqamat), which looks like the mode, but is not quite the same. The tonic note, dominant note, and ending note (unless modulation occurs) are generally determined by the maqam used. Arabic maqam theory as ascribed in literature over the ages names between 90 and 110 maqams, that are grouped into larger categories known as fasilah. Fasilah are groupings of maqams whose first four primary pitches are shared in common.

What is a Maqam?

In Arabic music, a Maqam (plural Maqamat) is a set of notes with traditions that define relationships between them, habitual patterns, and their melodic development. Maqamat are best defined and understood in the context of the rich Arabic music repertoire. The nearest equivalent in Western classical music would be a mode (e.g. Major, Minor, etc.)

The Arabic scales which Maqamat are built from are not even-tempered, unlike the chromatic scale used in Western classical music. Instead, 5th notes are tuned based on the 3rd harmonic. The tuning of the remaining notes entirely depends on the Maqam. The reasons for this tuning are probably historically based on string instruments like the oud. A side effect of not having even-tempered tuning is that the same note (by name) may have a slightly different pitch depending on which Maqam it is played in.

Are maqamat transposable ?

When Arabic maqamat are taught and documented, each maqam is usually associated with the same starting note (tonic). For example, maqam Bayati is almost always shown as starting on D in reference textbooks.

In general maqamat are transposable, but only to a handful of other tonics. For example, maqam Bayati can also start on G and A. When transposing Arabic maqamat, musicians mention the tonic name after the maqam name for clarity (e.g. “Bayati on G” or “Bayati on A”). For this reason also, only a few quarter tones are exploited (with the understanding that the term quarter tone is approximate, and that many semitones include microtonal variations). The most frequently used quarter tones are: E, A and B.

How many maqamat are there ?

There are dozens of Arabic maqamat, too many to list, including many Persian and Turkish hybrids. It’s difficult to find a definitive list of Arabic maqamat that all textbooks agree on, or a definitive reference on which maqamat are strictly Arabic and which are Turkish or Persian. There are also many local maqamat used only in some regions of the Arab world (e.g. Iraq and North Africa), and unknown in others. But the most widely used and known maqamat are about 30 to 40.

What is Iraqi maqam

What is Iraqi maqam? The word maqam grossly means place or situation. In the context of music the word maqam may refer to two different aspects of musical form. One definition is common everywhere in the Arab world, the other is specifically in Iraq. Everywhere in the Arab world the word maqam refers to the specific Oriental tone scales, of which there is an enormous variety in Arabic music due to the vast range of different `microtones’.

At the same time in the classical musique savante of Iraq the word maqam refers to a special kind of `suite’, consisting of improvisations based on certain standard rules or performance and aesthetics.

*As the leading recitalist of the Iraqi Maqam, Ahmed mukhtar perpetuates the centuries old traditional singing and playing.

The Iraqi Maqam follows a pattern of three main parts; the introduction and finale being interspersed with set musical and melodic passages performed alternatively by the vocalist and musicians.

The art of Iraqi maqam reached its ultimate refinement during the golden age of the Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad, a key city on the borders of the Arab, Turkish arid Persian worlds. Used by classical and popular musicians, it was not only favoured by the local aristocracy in their music rooms but also used at religious celebrations and Sufi ceremonies. All the composition and the contemporary compositions By Ahmed Mukhtar are based on the Iraqi Maqam, accompanied by the Iraqi Ensemble Qanaon , Joza Nay and many kind of percussion .

source – ahmed mukhtar

The Yeni Makam Series of composer Edward J. Hines is a series of chamber works which synthesize Western compositional technique with the ancient theory of both Turkish makams and Arabic maqamat. To accomplish this objective, in Yeni Makam the whole tone (200 cents) is divided into half tones (100 cents) and quarter-tones (50 cents). The quarter-tone is then divided again, this time into eighth-tones (25 cents). The eighth-tone is only a 2 cent difference from an authentic Pythagorean comma (23 cents) which is imperceptible to the ear. In this way, a single musical composition can explore whole-tones, half-tones, quarter-tones and eight-tones which are now common to all three musical traditions.

examples of turkish makams as notated in the yeni makam series of edward j. hines
note: the accidental signs of the yeni makam series are innovations and modifications of current modal practice.
1. Scale Basics: Scales based on Pythagorean principles are a series of whole-tones and half-tones which progress up and down. In the West, the familiar Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-Do describes a complete scale (major) where the most important note Do, the tonic, begins and ends the scale. The next most important note is called the dominant and is the fifth note of the scale (Sol). 2. Turkish Accidentals: In Turkish classical music, whole-tones and half-tones are approximately the same size as Western whole-tones and half-tones, and function the same way within the scale. However, the Pythagorean comma (approximately one-eighth tone) plays a critical role as it is used to augment or diminish whole-tones (creating ‘smaller’ and ‘larger’ whole-tones) as well as half-tones. Pitches can also be adjusted by more than one comma, resulting in quarter-tones and even three-eighths tones:
Note: There are discrepancies in Turkish classical music literature between written notes and actual sound. For example, the accidental for the eighth-tone is also used for the quarter-tone. However, a performer who is trained in the makams of Turkish classical music will understand which mode (by name) is being performed and will play the correct pitch. In order to demonstrate the correlation between Western, Turkish and Arabic scales and to replicate actual performance practice, three of the accidentals in the above example are innovations.

3. Turkish Tetrachords: Following the example of the ancient Greeks, Turkish makams are the combination of two four-note groupings called tetrachords. Through the use of accidentals, a series of tetrachords, each with a different characteristic (and name) can be created. Unlike the West, the dominant (D) will sometimes be located within the tetrachord itself. The following examples are the basic tetrachords (and pentachords) of Turkish classical music:

4. Turkish Makams: By joining tetrachords and pentachords, complete scales and modes are created. There are thousands of musical examples of works written using hundreds of different makams in the literature of Turkish classical music. Makam names vary according to pitches used as well as general direction of the melodic flow. Thus makams are really rules of composition and not just scales. Here are just a few examples:

Note: Turkish folk music, while not as highly refined or theoretical as Turkish classical music, has many examples of songs written in different makams including Hicaz, Huseyni and Ussak.

5. Arabic Maqamat: Arabic maqamat are based on a 24 note octave which includes whole-tones, half-tones and quarter-tones. As in Turkish makams, Arabic maqamat have different names according to pitch and melodic direction. It is interesting to note that the Arabic Bayyati is like the Turkish Huseyni and Ussak (Bayati). Nahawand is the same as the Turkish Puselik and the Western minor scale. Ajam Ashiran is the same as the Turkish Cargah and the Western major scale. The Arabic Hijaz and Turkish Hicaz are very close in sound as are Kurd and Kurdi.

Note: In the Yeni Makam Series, the accidental for 1/4 tone-flat is the reversed form of the Arabic 1/4 tone-flat sign. This innovation is done in order to reconcile the different modal traditions of Turkish, Arabic and Western music.

TURKISH MUSIC THEORY – MAKAMS

MAKAM: Turkish art music can be considered within the makam music that is common from Central Asia to the entire Mediterranean basin. Turkish music is a monophonic musical tradition founded on the principle of makam. Though the Turkish makams resemble the makam traditions of surrounding cultures, they contain their own unique characters of style and execution. The name “makam” is the term applied to the whole of rules that describe melodic progression patterns (seyir) within musical scales, which are in turn founded on particular orders of intervals. The development and performance of makams exhibit changes according to different periods and theoreticians. The concept of makam, on which Turkish music theory is founded, has different meanings in Turkish classical and various local folk music traditions, and consequently shows clear differences in practice.

Over four hundred makams exist in Turkish music; however the vast majority of these are no longer in use today. There are several different systematic approaches to the subject of makam, chief of which are the Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek system, the Karadeniz System, and the Gürmeriç system. Without addressing all the differences in makam classification and nomenclature, we will give just their names as they are most widely known today. The makams are classified into three main sections: Basit (simple) makams, Sed (transposed) makams and Birlesik (compound) makams.

Basic Makams: Çargah, Buselik, Basit Sehnaz, Beyati Basit Isfahan, Hicaz, Humayun, Uzzal,Zirgüleli Hicaz, Hüseyni,Muhayyer, Gülizar, Neva, Tahir, Karcigar, Basit Süznak.

Transposed and Compound Makams: Because the transposed makams are still the subject of debate and several theoreticians claim that they display characteristics of compound makams, we will give the names of the transposed and compound makams together here: Mahur, Acem Asran, Nihavend, Ruhnüvaz, Sultan-i Yegah, Kürdili Hicazkar, Askefza, Ferahnüma, Zirgüleli Süznak, Hicazkar, Evcara, Suz-i Dil, Sedd-i Araban, Reng-i dil, Nisabur, Segah, Segah Maye, üstear, Hüzzam, Vech-i Arazbar, Isfahan, Ifahanek, Beyati Araban, Acem, Acem Kürdi, Hisar, Hisar Buselik, Sehnaz, Arazbar, Saba, Dügah, Kûçek, Sipihr, Gerdaniye, Muhayyer Sümbüle, Dügah Maye, Sultan-i Irak, Nisaburek,, Nikriz, Neveser, Pesendide,Güldeste, Tarz-i Nevin, Nihavend-i Kebir, Zavil, Pençgah, Pençgah-i asil, Pençgah-i Asil, Sûz-i Dilara, Büzürk, Sazkar, Rehavi, Sevk-i Dil, Irak, Eviç, Bestenigâr, Beste-Isfahan, Rahat’ül-Ervah, Dilkes-Haveran, rûy-i Irak, Revnak-Nüma, Hüzzam-i Cedid, Ferahnak, Sevk-u Tarab, Sevk-Aver, Tarz-i Cedid, Hüseyni Asiran, Buselik Asiran, Asiran Zemzeme, Nühüft, Can-Feza, Saba Asiran, Rahat Feza (Hicaz Asiran-Hicaz-i Muhalif), Zirefkend, Ferahfeza, Dilkeside, Lalegül, Sultan-i Segah, Seref-Nüma, Sive- Nüma, Yegah, Acemli Yegah, Anber-efsan, Bahr-i Nazik, Çargah Gerdaniye, Cihar-Agazin, Dügah-i Hicaz, Usak Huzi, Evc Huzi, Evc-Isfahan, Evic-Muhalif, Hicazi Ussa, Hicaz Zemzeme, Selmek, Bezm-i Tarab, Eviç-Nihavendi, Eviç-Maye, Hicaz-Irak, Sehnaz-Haveran, Asiran Maye, Gülzar, Hicazeyn, Huzi-Asiran, Bend-i Asiran, Dil-Ruba

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by Dr.Bülent Aksoy

Makam is the most important concept in Ottoman-Turkish music as in all modal musical traditions; in other words, the usul, rhythm is of secondary importance since a melody can fulfil the requirements of a makam without being subject to restrictions of rhythm. As a matter of fact, musical forms or performance with no fixed rhythm constitute a significant aspect Turkish music.

Makam is a concept that cannot be defined in a simple, straightforward way. It is a complex phenomenon, especially in Turkish music. Such complexity results from the variety and instability of the elements that shape its very structure. To be able to understand in a most satisfactory way what kind of formation makam is, one should first make a distinction between the theoretical definition of a given makam and its true identity arising in practice. There may be several differences between makams as defined in theory books and their practised version(s). Although it is a fact that every theoretical definition introduces a generalization, hence imposes a certain limitation, some of those differences may be a sign of subtle points of performance which the theory has not included and conceptualised yet. Theoretical knowledge is only a preliminary framework that introduces a general notion on makams, which is a significant starting point. However, music based on the concept of makam is primarily a genre that exists through composing and performing.

In theoretical terms, makam is defined first by its scale, that is, the tones or notes which lend themselves to the makam in question. Yet the practice often goes beyond the scope of the very scale shaped by its given tones. The upper and lower extensions of a makam may be regarded as tones belonging to the same scale. Although in general it may said that a makam uses the same tones both in the upper and lower extensions, it is possible that it may use extensions more than one, meaning that the extensions are not always symmetrical, in other words, the tones employed in the first octave do not always coincide. This kind of alteration, which should be regarded as a characteristic aspect of makam music, attests to the fact that scale as a principle determinant of makam in this particular case is given up.
The Seyir (Melodic Progression)

The scale is no more than a frozen structure, a skeleton. The skeleton may gain life only through the seyir, the melodic progression. Certain makams may be distinguished by their melodic progression notwithstanding they all employ the same scale. The melodic progression makes it clear how a scale is supposed to be employed. The opening tone(s), the final tone, intonations in imperfect cadence; how a musician is supposed to progress between the opening tone and intonations in imperfect cadence; and between the intonations in imperfect cadence and finalis; which tones are to be used more or less frequently, or which tones are never to be touched; whether the progression is ascending or descending, or both. Melodic progression may still require more detailed knowledge, namely crucial tones of a makam, particularly the intonations in suspended cadence, flattening or sharpening of the tones by a semitone or by intervals smaller than a semitone while descending or ascending, intonations in suspended cadence and in some transpositions, asymmetrical extensions, performance conventions peculiar only to certain makams, to what tones the fourths and fitfths in the structure of makams may be transposed constitute other aspects of melodic progression. In compound makams (composed of two or more separate makams) all these characteristics of the melodic progression become even more complex.

Modulation and Çesni or Melodic Genera

Study of makams also require an understanding of concepts of “modulation” and “melodic genera”, traditonally referred to as the çesni in Turkish music, which literally means (melodic) “flavour”. Certain modulation patterns may become conventional after they have been employed for a long time. Such typical modulations cannot be excluded from the broader understanding of makams although they are not included in the general, standard structure of the same makam, because they are modulations that are “appealing” it since it adds a certain loveable “flavour” to it. The word çesni, that has become an established concept in Turkish music, is obtained from tetracords, pentacords or even tricords borrowed from other makams. Some of such genera may regarded as the formal requirements of the related makam structure while others as being an inseparable part of it due to the fact that they have been employed throughout the centuries. Such genera add colour and give identity to a certain makam as well as make it easier to distinguish it from a makam which displays parallel melodic contours. For example, the makam bayatî employs hicaz genera on the tone neva (d) and nikriz genera on çargâh (c) before it takes steps towards the final tone. These distinctive flavours makes bayatî distinguishable from makam ussak. The genera included subsequently in the structure of a makam may add new scales to the existing scales.

Makams may employ elements that are even smaller than a tricord. Tones not included in the very structure yet cannot be regarded as a modulation, those deviations or small ornamentations which display themselves in a single borrowed note also reveal an aspect of the concept of makam. Such single note ornamentations which can be found in a number of compositions, hence cannot be considered to be modulations is an interesting aspect of the makam phenomenon which has not been studied sufficiently. It is worth noting here that there are musical elements that do exit in makam practice but have not yet been conceptualised at the theoretical level.
Historical Dimension of Makams

The makam phenomenon exhibits a historical dimension as well. The practised versions of makams in today’s Turkish music are generally those which became established in the nineteenth century. However, the names of some makams have changed and others even though employed in the past gained a different pattern. Even the most established makam is subject to some evolution or change. Within the long history of a certain makam, its melodic progression, its tetrachords and pentacords, or even its entire scale may have been exposed to change. The makam structure of the compositions of the seventeenth century music given by Cantemir and Ali Ufki clearly reveals this aspect of the makam phonemenon. Historical change cannot be ruled out in studying makams. By virtue of its historicity, the makam should be seen not as a static musical entity. The makam kürdilihicazkâr, a relatively new makam created as late as the mid-nineteenth century, became diversifed and more complex within a century and today began to be used in several versions.
A study of the historical process is necessary for grasping the very nature of the concept of makam as well as understanding the development of Turkish music. The makams that appear in simpler structures in the seventeenth century have become enriched with new genera and with melodic progressions from the mid-eighteenth century onwards and acquired new scales. Such practice should be seen as the contribution of new generations who within certain limits introduced novelties into former makam practice. The prominent divergences of the structures of the compositions produced three centuries ago and those at the beginning of the twentieth century reveal the fact that makams have evolved from simpler structures to compound and more complex ones. The composers of the past have aspired to express their creativity by elaborating on aspects which have not been done previously. Seeking new ways opened paths to arranging or devising completely new makams as well.

Makam Practice Prevalent in the Musical Repertoire

The structure of any makam may be presented on a staff by musical notes, yet in the compositions themselves and in their performance they will have to include several more elements, which display a variety, richness, and also instability and they cannot be directly written down on the staff. At this point it should be noted that the true identity of makams can be described not only in general theoretical terms but in the way they have been dealt with in the compositions found in the repertoire of Turkish music.

In modern Turkish musicological studies which began in the twentieth century the “tonal system” of Turkish music was given emphasis and the makam concept have often been treated within the parameters of the proposed tonal system, hence the aspects of makams which cannot be explained thoroughly therein have been left outside the scope of the inquiry.

The makam concept thus has been blurred by attempts to devise a theoretically consistent system. Most theories in general terms have not taken the makam phenomenon as their point of departure but painstakingly tried to make makams fit into their own system. Such a theoretical position has not been able to cover all aspects of makams. This position should be replaced by a perspective not explaining makams starting from the demands of the tonal system but from the actual makam practice in order to arrive at a more flexible concept of tonal system, hence bring the theory closer to and incorporate into practice.

Select Bibliography

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Feldman, Walter 1996. Music of the Ottoman Court, VWB, Berlin.
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Source: Turkish Music Portal