Turkish
INTRODUCTION TO TURKISH MUSIC
by EVREN BILGENOGLU
The roots of Turkish music are derived from the shamanistic musical traditions of Central Asia. After migrating to Anatolia (central Turkey) in the seventh century, Turkish tribes started to convert to Islam religion and culture. Over time as the Islamic traditions spread, Turkish music in turn began to be influenced by the Arabic and Persian musical characteristics during the Ottoman Empire (starting with the fourteenth century). All of these influences enriched musical practice in Turkey with the inclusion of diverse structures of modes and rhythms.
Traditional Turkish music is divided into two different genres: Turkish Art Music and Turkish folk music. Because of the extensive usage of these elements by Turkish composers, it is essential to discuss principles of Turkish Art Music and Turkish folk music and their related instruments.
Turkish Art Music
Turkish Art Music was developed in the Ottoman Empire for five centuries and performed at the Divan (court), at religious centers, and in the Ottoman army. Its lyrics are derived from Divan literature. Since Turkish Art Music was practiced at the Divan, it was enjoyed mainly by elite Turks in the palace. Turkish Art Music is also called, and is considered to be, classical Turkish music, due to the fact that it was supported by the court of the Ottoman Empire.
The Arabic language derived from Islamic culture had a profound effect on the Ottoman elite class, and Arabic words started to appear in the Turkish language, bringing a different rhythmic flow into Divan literature. Consequently, these Arabic words affected the rhythmic flow of Turkish Art Music songs.
An analysis of Turkish Art Music pieces is based on two systems: the usul(rhythmic mode) and the makam (melodic mode).
The usul system regulates the rhythmic factor of all composed pieces. Usul is a repeating rhythmic cycle, or rhythmic mode. There are at least 40 usuls (plural usuller in Turkish) in the Turkish Art Music repertoire and each of them has its own name. The makam system is a set of compositional rules by which the melodic elements of a piece of music are recognized. Basically, it is a melodic mode. In this concept makam scales are similar to European medieval modes. There are approximately 60 to 70 makams (plural makamlar in Turkish) that we know of today, each of which has its own name.
In the Ottoman period makams were notated in various ways. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Rauf Yekta Bey (1871-1935) and his successors Subhi Ezgi (1869-1962) and Hüseyin Saadettin Arel (1880-1955) transcribed the current Ottoman repertoire into Western classical music notation. Especially in his treatise, Türk Mus?kisi Nazariyat?Dersleri (Theory Lessons on Turkish Art Music), Saadettin Arel explains and clarifies the makam and usul systems, and his work is still the most reliable source in Turkey. In this treatise, the usage of the makam is based on the study of Arel.
The intervallic structure of makam practice is very different from Western classical music. Basically, a whole step in Western classical music is divided into nine equal pitches in the practice of Turkish Art Music, and each pitch is called a “comma”. There are six accidentals (three sharp signs and three flat signs) used in Turkish Art Music practice. The sharps are 1) koma diyezi (comma sharp), 2) bakiye diyezi (bakiye sharp), and 3) küçük mücennep diyezi (küçük mücennep sharp). The flats are: 1) koma bemolü(comma flat), 2) bakiye bemolü (bakiye flat), and 3) küçük mücennep bemolü (küçükmücennep flat). Figure 1 shows the accidentals that are used in Turkish Art Music practice. 
The usage of these accidentals in the makam system influenced the instrumental development in the period of the Ottoman Empire. In Turkish Art Music practice, numerous musical instruments are used. The most interesting instrument is the kanun, which is a trapezium-shaped flat box zither. It is held horizontally on the performer’s lap and it has a peg box in which small levers are placed. The player uses these levers in order to tune the strings to the makam of a particular piece. The strings are plucked by two ring-shaped plectrums placed on index fingers. Another instrument is called the ney, which is the most characteristic instrument in sacred music with its mystical sound color. The ney is 40 to 80 centimeters long and is made out of reed and held horizontally towards the right side of the player. There are many other Turkish Art Music instruments; however, they will not be discussed in this treatise as they are out of the scope of this work.
Turkish Folk Music
Turkish folk music is traditionally sung by folk poets and minstrels who usually perform in Anatolian villages and their songs are called Türkü in Turkish. Turkish folk music varies in terms of instrumentation, rhythm, modes and linguistics. The usul system is rarely present in Turkish folk music because of the linguistics. As mentioned before, the Ottoman elite class was affected by the Arabic language; whereas peasants in Turkey preserved a more pure form of the Turkish language. Some Turkish folk music pieces are nevertheless arguably in a certain makam or usul; however, this is not the case for most of the pieces. As for rhythmic structures, Turkish folk music songs (Türküs) and dances 6can be classified according to the geographical regions in Anatolia. For example, the most significant structure belongs to the Black Sea region with the characteristic 7/8 meter with the Horon dance. Another noteworthy structure belongs to the Aegean region with the Zeybek dance with a slow 9/8 meter, which will be explained in the following chapters.
Turkish composers often employ these rhythms and in addition imitated the following. For example, in Anatolia, the most popular Turkish folk instrument is the saz, a long necked lute with three doubled strings. The saz is tuned in fifths, and the melody is usually played on the upper string while the lower string is played as a drone. The saz can be heard almost every region in Turkey. Another characteristic instrument is the kemençe. The name originates from the word keman, which means violin in Turkish. The kemençe has three strings, tuned in fourths, and is played with a bow. The kemençeis held in a vertical position on player’s knee, and the length of the instrument is approximately 40 to 60 centimeters. This instrument is primarily associated with the Black Sea region in Turkey. At Turkish rural celebrations, two predominant instruments, the davul and zurna, are played. The zurna is a double reed instrument which resembles the clarinet and it is usually accompanied by the davul. The davul, a Turkish drum, is hung on the side of the player and is played with a wooden drumstick.
Turkish composers employed various reminiscent characteristics in their compositions which will be discussed within the subject matter pieces. Before introducing the pieces written for viola, the development of Western art music and the Turkish viola repertoire will be discussed in the following chapter
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